a. Forms of power-sharing - horizontal and vertical.

In democratic systems, power-sharing mechanisms can be categorized into two main forms: horizontal power-sharing and vertical power-sharing.

1. Horizontal Power-sharing:

   Horizontal power-sharing refers to the division of powers among different organs or institutions of the government. It involves the separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Here are the key features:

   a. Legislative Power: The power to make laws rests with the legislature, which is usually a representative body elected by the people. It can be a unicameral (one chamber) or bicameral (two chambers) system. The legislature debates and passes laws, ensuring that multiple perspectives and interests are taken into account.

   b. Executive Power: The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws. It is headed by the government or the executive, which is typically led by a president, prime minister, or a similar position. The executive is accountable to the legislature and is subject to checks and balances.

   c. Judicial Power: The judiciary ensures the interpretation and application of laws. It consists of courts and judges who are independent of the legislative and executive branches. The judiciary acts as a check on the exercise of power, protecting individual rights and ensuring the rule of law.

   The separation of powers ensures a system of checks and balances, preventing the concentration of power in any single branch and safeguarding against abuses of authority.

2. Vertical Power-sharing:

   Vertical power-sharing involves the distribution of powers between different levels of government, typically the central government and regional or local governments. Key features include:

   a. Central Government: The central government represents the entire country or nation and exercises authority over matters of national importance such as defense, foreign affairs, and monetary policy. It formulates laws and policies that are applicable to the entire country.

   b. Regional/Local Governments: Regional or local governments have jurisdiction over specific geographical areas within the country. They are responsible for addressing local concerns, providing essential services, and making decisions on matters within their domain. These governments ensure greater representation and participation of local communities.

   Vertical power-sharing allows for the accommodation of diverse regional, linguistic, cultural, and ethnic aspirations. It decentralizes decision-making, giving communities a greater say in local governance and promoting a sense of ownership and inclusivity.

Both horizontal and vertical power-sharing mechanisms are essential in democracies to ensure the equitable distribution of power, protect individual rights, foster participation and representation, and maintain the stability and legitimacy of the political system.