b. Horizontal distribution of power - the division of power between the central and state governments

In the context of the CBSE Class 10 syllabus, the horizontal distribution of power refers to the division of powers between the central government and the state governments in a federal system. India follows a federal system of government where power is divided between the central government and the state governments.

The Constitution of India provides for a distribution of powers between the central government and the state governments through various provisions. Some of the key features of the horizontal distribution of power in India are:

1. Union List: The Union List contains subjects on which only the central government can make laws, such as defense, foreign affairs, currency, and atomic energy.

2. State List: The State List contains subjects on which only the state governments can make laws, such as police, public health, agriculture, and local government.

3. Concurrent List: The Concurrent List contains subjects on which both the central and state governments can make laws, such as criminal law, marriage and divorce, bankruptcy and insolvency, and education. In case of a conflict between a central law and a state law on a concurrent subject, the central law prevails.

4. Residuary Powers: Any matter not mentioned in any of the three lists (Union List, State List, and Concurrent List) falls under the residuary powers of the central government. The central government has the authority to legislate on such matters.

5. Power of Parliament: The Parliament has the authority to make laws on subjects in the State List in certain situations, such as during emergencies, if it is in the national interest, or with the consent of the concerned state.

6. Division of Financial Powers: The central government has the power to levy and collect taxes on subjects in the Union List, while the state governments have the power to levy and collect taxes on subjects in the State List. However, certain taxes can be levied by both the central and state governments.

The division of powers between the central government and the state governments ensures a balance of power, allows for effective governance, and safeguards the interests of both the nation as a whole and the states. It provides for shared responsibilities and enables cooperative federalism in India.